Category: Teaching collection

Dimensions:   45cm x 6cm  

Materials:   

Shell rings (takei), embroidery string (pirik), fibrous sheet (potentially made of barkcloth or coconut palm tissue) and rattan cords  

Production Methods and Techniques: Unknown, but likely embroidery techniques.   

Condition:  Good.  

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Description:  

Headdress made from fibrous sheet that is embroidered with shell rings, with circular patterns in the centre and tapered ends. A cord is attached to either side of the sheet, which presumably is used to tie to head. This item was previously catalogued as a belt but we believe it is more likely to be a headdress.  

This vibrant ceremonial textile, woven with intricate embroidery, comes from Southeast Asia. The fabric is decorated with bright colors, geometric patterns, and symbolic motifs, often representing spiritual or social themes.

Significance:

Ceremonial textiles serve both functional and symbolic purposes, used in celebrations, rituals, and as markers of social status or cultural identity.

Function: 

In Puang communities, suwau is part of the bride-wealth and used in land buying or exchanged in peace-making rituals, post warfare.  

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Provenance   

Name of Creator:   Unknown  

Where the item was created/made: Likely Papua New Guinea.  

Date Made:  Unknown  

Acquisition:  

Unknown, but these objects were potentially acquired by Professor Hooshang Philsooph during his ethnographic research in Puang, West Sepik, Papua New Guinea and donated to the University of Edinburgh’s Social Anthropology Teaching Collection by him, where the Social Anthropology Department now has ownership. 

Acquisition date:  

Unknown, but potentially acquired between 1971-1973 during Professor Hooshang Philsooph’s fieldwork.  

Current Location:  Chrystal Macmillan Building in storage.  

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General Notes

Sources:  

Philosooph, H. (1980) A Study of a West Sepik People, New Guinea, with special reference to their system of beliefs, kinship and marriage, and principles of thought. PhD thesis. University of Edinburgh.  

Other Associations:  

There is a likely association with object SA01.  

Name of Cataloguers:  

Astrid Everall, Ariela Silber and Yiyang Wen  

Date:  12/03/2025  

Acquisition Number: SA04

Title: Unknown  

Item Type: Fibrous sheet with shells and tusk 

Key Words:  Puang, Papua New Guinea, shells, Hooshang Philsooph 

Description:  

Rectangular fibrous sheet embrodiered with shell rings around the edges and in a square pattern. There are two whole cowrie shells in the centre of each square. At one end of the sheet, a curved tusk is attached with string. The back of the sheet is dyed with red and black pigment in a pattern.    

Function:  

Unknown, but it could possibly be used as a belt or a hanging ornament.   

Dimensions:   45cm x 9cm  

Materials:   

Shell rings (takei), whole cowrie shells, embroidery string (pirik), fibrous sheet (potentially made of bark or coconut palm tissue), red and black pigment, tusk 

Production Methods and Techniques:

Unknown, but likely embroidery techniques.  

Condition:  

Poor/damaged. There are visible signs of wear to the object and some small tears.  

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Provenance

Name of Creator:   Unknown  

Where the Item was created/made:  Likely Papua New Guinea.  

Date Made:  Unknown  

Acquisition:  

Unknown, but these objects were potentially acquired by Professor Hooshang Philsooph during his ethnographic research in Puang, West Sepik, Papua New Guinea and donated to the University of Edinburgh’s Social Anthropology Teaching Collection by him, where the Social Anthropology Department now has ownership. 

Acquisition Date:  

Unknown, but potentially acquired between 1971-1973 during Professor Hooshang Philsooph’s fieldwork.  

Current Location:  

Chrystal Macmillan Building in storage.  

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General Notes 

Sources:  

Philosooph, H. (1980) A Study of a West Sepik People, New Guinea, with special reference to their system of beliefs, kinship and marriage, and principles of thought. PhD thesis. University of Edinburgh.  

Other associations: There is a likely association with object SA04.   

Name of Cataloguer:   Astrid Everall and Ariela Silber  

Date:  12/03/2025  

Assession Number: SA 01

Title: Yayrapen  

Item Type: Arrows  

Key Words:  Yayrapen, Puang, Papua New Guinea, arrows, wood, Hooshang Philsooph, weaponry  

Dimensions: 97cm x 0.75cm 

Materials:   Wood (likely betel nut), feathers (either lory, cockatoo or parrot), breadfruit tree saps, bamboo ashes, paint (made from Hapin)  

Production Methods and Techniques:   Unknown, but likely carving and cord plaiting processes were used.   

Condition:  Good

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Description

Four barbed betel nut wood-made arrows with multi-coloured feathers (these objects were previously categorised as spears but after research was undertaken, we have since distinguished them as arrows). These Yayrapen have barbed arrowheads with sharpened tips. Black and white threads and black paint decorate and secure the arrow hafting. The arrow shafts are a light brown wood, straight and smooth to touch. The fletchling are made with multi-coloured feathers fastened by black and white twine threads (two are red and blue, one is dark brown and one is beige and light brown). Black and white threats plait around the nock of the arrow, displaying visible arrow dents.  

Function:  

Yayrapen is a type of arrow mainly used by the Puang people from Papua New Guinea. They are used to injure or possibly kill men, and to hunt pigs and cassowaries. The shapes and uses of these arrows are related to Puang people’s ‘destructive magic’: to diminish or hurt enemies’ souls, indigenous magicians will make different ‘magical bundles’ that resemble these arrows to curse their counterparts. This relates to a basic perspective in Puang warfare that drawing enemies’ blood can sometimes be more important that killing the enemy, as personal belongings (or blood) can be used in ‘destructive magic’ to harm their souls. It is notable that the term Yayrapen is not the overall name for all Puang magical arrows, but only refers to one kind of arrow, amidst other Puang weaponry used for purposes of ‘destructive magic’.       

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Provenance

Name of creator: Unknown  

Where was the Item created/made: Unknown, but likely Papua New Guinea.  

Date Made: Unknown  

Acquisition:  

Unknown, but these objects were potentially acquired by Professor Hooshang Philsooph during his ethnographic research in Puang, West Sepik, Papua New Guinea and donated to the University of Edinburgh’s Social Anthropology Teaching Collection by him, where the Social Anthropology Department now has ownership. 

Acquisition Date:  

Unknown, but potentially acquired between 1971-1973 during Professor Hooshang Philsooph’s fieldwork.  

Current Location:  5^th floor of Chrystal MacMillan Building on display.  

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General Notes   

Sources:  

Philosooph, H. (1980) A Study of a West Sepik People, New Guinea, with special reference to their system of beliefs, kinship and marriage, and principles of thought. PhD thesis. University of Edinburgh.  

Name of Cataloguer:  Yiyang Wen 

DATE:  07/03/2025  

Assession Number: SA052.1-52.4

Title: Adze blade  

Item Type: Ceremonial axe  

Key Words:  Adze, greenstone, blade, Massim, Papua New Guinea, weaponry  

Dimensions: 9cm x 18cm   

Materials: Chloromelanite stone 

Condition: Fair. The blade has several scratches and dents around its rim.  

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Description:

A carved green stone. This stone is likely to be the blade of a ceremonial axe, an adze blade, from the Massim regions of Papua New Guinea. The axe blade is inserted into a wooden handle that is shaped like a slightly tilted 7 and fastened into the handle by wrapped fibres that hold the blade in place.  

Function:  

As a prestige item, adze blades were carried or worn in the belt for adornment on special occasions such as sing-sing and moka exchanges. Due to the risk of breaking the thin blade, they were only used for cutting off fingers as a sign of grief and sometimes in close combat. They were also used as money to buy other commodities, such as salt, body oil, shells and brides. The axes were used ceremonially as ‘strength-giving ornaments’ in the ceremonial dances during the Konggol. The wooden handles that hold the stone are only temporary supports for the blade, carved especially to carry and display the stone during exchange ceremonies. Once it has been inserted in the haft, the stone blade is marked for presentation and exchanged, after which the handle is often discarded until the next exchange cycle demands that a new one be carved. 

Indigenous Massim people would use stone axes and tools until colonists from Australia introduced steel tool in the mid-20^th century, however, it is suggested that the polished axe stones maintained their value as ceremonial valuables that were traded between communities. The axes that are created today are identical to those made in the past, except that most of the stone used now is softer and more fragile as it is easier and quicker to work with.  

Production Methods and Techniques:   

It is suggested that these stones were quarried from a cave in the volcanic regions of the Massim Islands in Papua New Guinea. Cracks are produced in the solid rock, partly by hammering it with wooden billets and partly by alternately heating it with fire and pouring cold water on it. Next, wedges were forced into the cracks and blocks broken free. Archaeological evidence points to a long-extinct greenstone tool industry centered around the quarry of the Suloga hills in Muyuw (Woodlark Island).  

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Provenance

Name of Creator: Unknown  

Where the Item was created/made: 

Likely the Southern Isles of Papua New Guinea   

Date Made: Unknown  

Acquisition:  

Unknown, but it was likely obtained by a PhD student of a member of staff at the University of Edinburgh during fieldwork and was then donated to the University of Edinburgh’s Social Anthropology Teaching Collection, where the Social Anthropology Department now has ownership. The nature of the acquisition is unknown.  

Acquisition Date: Unknown  

Current Location: 5^th floor of Chrystal MacMillan Building on display. 

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General Notes

Name of Cataloguer:  Annabel Macdonald  

Date:  05/03/2025  

Assession Number: SA049

Title: Thammattama Bera  

Item Type:  Bongo drums 

Key Words: Thammattama, bongo drum, drum, Sinhalese, Sri Lanka, musical instrument, Anthony Good 

Materials:  Wood (possibly from Kohomba, Ehela and Jak trees), animal skin/fibres, cotton 

Dimensions: 40cm x 20cm

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Description: 

Bongo drums with a neck strap. The two wooden bowls of the drum are connected by strips of skin and two wooden rods on the sides. The membranes are held by a band of twisted fibres that encase the edge of the drums and are connected to a second fibre on the underside of the drum with ten vertical strips of skin. A thick fibre band (urapota) wrapped in cotton fabric is tied to the skin strips on both outer sides, forming the drum strap.   

Function:

The Thammattama Bera consists of two parts, with high sounds produced by the right drum and low sounds produced by the left drum. It is played with two sticks with circular ends rather than with hands. Thammattama is generally not played with equal pressure. There are special rhythms played on this drum used in Buddhist processions, to invite people into the temple, invite Buddhist priests for Pirith ceremonies or for alms giving. In Buddhist processions, the players move in fixed steps to the constantly repeated basic beat of their drums, which is beaten with the left hand, while the right hand adds complicated rhythmic variations. Occasionally, the players use their forearms and elbows as an artistic element in addition to the sticks. In conjunction with the Dawula, the Thammattama fills out the rhythmic cycle set by the cylinder drum.  

The Thammattama holds significance in Sinhalese society, where, during the times of the Sinhalese kingdoms, Bera were used to announce official decrees and the army marched into battle with war drums (Rana Bera).  

Production Methods and Techniques:

 It is usual to have a ceremony to begin the production of the Thammatta Bera. However, due to increased commercialisation in regions where these drums are made, it is possible that these ceremonies are ignored.  

Condition:  

Fair. There are signs of wear to the bounded fibres and cotton. The two circular bound sticks that are used to play the Bera are missing from the one in our collection.   

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Provenance

Name of creator: Unknown  

Where the item was created/made: Unknown, but likely Sri Lanka  

Date Made: Unknown  

Acquisition Date: Unknown, but likely pre-1980s.  

Current Location:  5^th floor of Chrystal MacMillan Building on display. 

Acquisition:

 This object was possibly acquired by Professor Emeritus Anthony Good during his ethnographic fieldwork in Sri Lanka and then donated to the University of Edinburgh’s Anthropology Teaching Collection by him, where the Social Anthropology Department now has ownership. The nature of this acquisition is unknown.  

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Name of Cataloguer:  Ariela Silber  

Date:  05/03/2025 

Assession Number: SA035

Title: Sowei mask  

Item Type:  helmet mask   

Key Words: Sowei, Bondu, Bundu, Mende, Sande, Sierra Leone, Kenneth Little, mask  

Dimensions: 46cm x 23cm   

Materials: Wood and potentially vegetable dye   

Description:  

A wooden helmet mask. It possesses neck rings, a detailed coiffure, downcast eyes and a composed facial expression that are typical of the sowei mask. This particular example has a particularly long neck, with ten neck rings. The eyelids are considerably larger than the nose, pursed lips, and ears. There are three scarification marks on each cheek and eight scarification marks on the forehead. The mask has an ornate plaited hairstyle, with three protruding circular parts engraved with a spiral motif, two on each side of the head and one at the back. The mask has two horn-like protrusions between the circular protrusions.

Function:   

Sowei masks are attributed to the Sande (also known as Bundu or Bondo), an all-female secret society in Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea and the Ivory Coast. The mask is worn during the end of girls’ initiation ceremonies when a ritual dance is performed by the society leader – the ndole jowei (dancing sowei). Usually worn with a raffia costume, the identity of the wearer is entirely concealed. It is believed that the sowei mask represents ideals of feminine beauty, with the full forehead representing wisdom and intellect, and the ringed neck embodying physical beauty in Mende society. This mask is likely a Mende sowei mask from Sierra Leone.

Production Methods and Techniques:

Sowei masks are carved from a single piece of wood and hollowed out so it can fit over the wearer’s head. They are dyed with vegetable dye for a darker tint on the mask. Though sowei masks are exclusively worn by women in Mende society, they are carved by men. The carving of a sowei is considered a challenge in Mende society, due to the variance in carving and the special status attributed to the sowei masks. Each carver tends to have their own personal style, where they have the opportunity to demonstrate their artistic skill.   

Condition:   

Fair. There is some discolouration and signs of aging on the wood. There is a chip on the left horn.    

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Provenance

Name of creator:Unknown  

Where the item was created/made:

Sierra Leone, but potentially in the Bo District where Kenneth Little was based for much of his fieldwork.   

Date Made:  

Unknown, but it is likely to have been made during or prior to the 1940s, when Kenneth Little performed his ethnographic fieldwork in Sierra Leone.   

Acquisition:   

We believe that the object was acquired by Professor Kenneth Little during his fieldwork in Sierra Leone. The object was brought to the University of Edinburgh and was donated to the Social Anthropology Teaching Collection. The nature of this acquisition is unknown.  

Acquisition Date:

It was likely acquired in 1945 or late 1946 during Kenneth Little’s fieldwork in Sierra Leone. It was likely donated to the Social Anthropology Teaching Collection after Kenneth Little joined the University of Edinburgh in 1950.    

Current Location: 5^th floor of Chrystal MacMillan Building on display.   

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General Notes

Sowei masks are given a name in Mende society, but we do not know the name of this specific mask.       

Sources:   

Little, K. L. (1949). ‘The Role of the Secret Society in Cultural Specialization.’ American Anthropologist, 51, no. 2: 199–212.  

Otto, Kristin. (2020) ‘Creating the Sowei: Repairing and Interpreting Sowei Masks in Global Assemblages.’ Order No. 28027290, Indiana University.   

Phillips, R. B. (1979) ‘The Sande Society Masks of the Mende of Sierra Leone.’ PhD diss., School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.   

Reinhart, L. (1975) ‘Mende Carvers’. PhD diss., Southern Illinois University Carbondale.  

Recommended Sites for Further Research:

Sierra Leone Heritage  

Name of Cataloguer: Zahra Abdalla   

Date:  06/03/2025  

Accession Number: SA030 

Title:  Unknown 

Item Type:  Bamboo flutes or tubes 

Key Words:  Flute, musical instrument, bamboo, Sierra Leone, Bubu 

Dimensions:   44cm x 4cm  

Materials: Bamboo 

Production methods and techniques: Unknown 

Condition: Good. 

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Description

A set of two cylindrical, hollow bamboo tubes, closed at one end and open at the other. There are small circular holes at the top of both tubes. The tubes are decorated with detailed carvings of lines, triangles and squares.  

Function:  

More research is needed on this object, but it is possible that these cylindrical tubes are musical instruments. There is a potential link to Sierra Leone, and specifically, the village of Mange Bureh, where bamboo cane trumpets are used. These ancient bamboo pipes are played by farmers in the Sierra Leone hinterlands, in the musical style of Bubu.  

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Provenance

Name of creator: Unknown 

Where the item was created/made:

Unknown, but potentially West Africa/Sierra Leone.  

Date Made: Unknown 

Acquisition:

Unknown, but it was likely obtained by a PhD student of a member of staff at the University of Edinburgh during fieldwork and was then donated to the University of Edinburgh’s Social Anthropology Teaching Collection, where the Social Anthropology Department now has ownership.  

Acquisition date: Unknown, but likely pre-1980s.  

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General Notes

Name of Cataloguer: Yasmin Heyworth  

Date:  05/03/2025 

Accession Number: SA 033.1 – 33.2

Title:  Kwi’fo  

Item Type: double bell  

Key Words:  

Kwi’fo, Kwi’fou, Nzeme Mmo, Bamileke, Cameroon, double bell, musical instrument  

Dimensions: Each bell is 8cm x 20cm (including the handle) 

Materials: Metal (most likely iron), raffia, twine 

Production methods and techniques:

Unknown, but likely iron smelting and forging techniques were used.  

Condition: Good. 

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Description

A pair of double bells with a raffia wrapped handle. It is accompanied by a separate metal gong, attached to the bell’s handle with twine.  

Function:

This double bell is common to Northwestern Cameroon and is likely to be associated with the Bamileke people of the Cameroon grasslands. The kwi’fo is a symbol of the Kwifoyn, one of the all-male societies of the Bamileke people, who worked in close proximity with the king to govern. The bell holds sacred value and represents the power and prestige of this organisation. It is ceremonial and is used in royal dance ensembles, for example to announce the arrival of the king during a ceremony. It can also be used to communicate with ancestors and the supernatural. The pitches of the two bells are typically an interval close to a major second apart.  

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Provenance

Name of creator: Unknown, but likely by the Bamileke people.  

Where the item was created/made:

Unknown, but likely in the Cameroon grasslands region.  

Date Made: Unknown 

Acquisition:

Unknown, but it was likely obtained by a PhD student of a member of staff at the University of Edinburgh during fieldwork and was then donated to the University of Edinburgh’s Social Anthropology Teaching Collection, where the Social Anthropology Department now has ownership. The nature of the acquisition is unknown.   

Acquisition date: Unknown, but likely pre-1980s.   

Current Location: 5^th floor of Chrystal MacMillan Building on display. 

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General Notes

The name kwi’fo refers to the group of counsellors and delegates of the king, symbolised by the double bell. Whilst the kwi’fo refers to its sacred use, the name nzeme mmo is used to refer to the double bell as a singular object.    

Sources:  

Schrag, B.E. (2005) How Bamiléké music-makers create culture in Cameroon. PhD thesis. University of California.   

Majolie Carine, D.T., Guia, E & Mbessa, M. (2024) The Concept of Aspectism in the Traditional Arts of the Bamileke People of Western Cameroon: Myth or Reality?. Available at SSRN: doi: 10.2139/ssrn.4844818.  

Other Associations:

There is a potential link to objects SA041, SA014, SA044 and SA045 in the collection, as they could be from the same region and used in similar dances and performances, but this needs further researching.  

Name of cataloguer: Astrid Everall  

Date: 07/03/2025  

Accession Number: SA 040

Title: Sowei mask

Item type: helmet mask   

Key Words: Sowei, Bondu, Bundu, Mende, Sande, Sierra Leone, Kenneth Little, mask

Description:  

A wooden helmet mask. It possesses neck rings, a detailed coiffure, downcast eyes and a composed facial that are typical of the sowei mask. This particular example has a particularly long neck, with ten neck rings. The eyelids are considerably larger than the nose, pursed lips, and ears.  

Function:   

Sowei masks are attributed to the Sande (also known as Bundu or Bondo), an all-female secret society in Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea and the Ivory Coast. The mask is worn during the end of girls’ initiation ceremonies when a ritual dance is performed by the society leader – the ndole jowei (dancing sowei). Usually worn with a raffia costume, the identity of the wearer is entirely concealed. It is believed that the sowei mask represents ideals of feminine beauty, with the full forehead representing wisdom and intellect, and the ringed neck embodying physical beauty and fertility in Mende society. This mask is likely a Mende sowei mask from Sierra Leone.   

Dimensions:   

Materials:  Wood 

Production Methods and Techniques:

Sowei masks are carved by men from a single piece of wood in Mende society but are only worn by women. They are dyed with vegetable dye for a darker tint on the mask.  

Condition:

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Provenance

Name of creator: Unknown   

Where the item was created/made: Sierra Leone  

Date Made:  

Unknown, but it is likely to have been made during or prior to the 1940s, when Kenneth Little performed his ethnographic fieldwork in Sierra Leone.   

Acquisition:

We believe that the object was acquired by Professor Kenneth Little during his fieldwork in Sierra Leone. The object was brought to the University of Edinburgh and was donated to the Social Anthropology Teaching Collection. The nature of this acquisition is unknown.  

Acquisition date:  

It was likely acquired in the 1940s during Kenneth Little’s fieldwork in Sierra Leone. It was likely donated to the Social Anthropology Teaching Collection after Kenneth Little joined the University of Edinburgh in 1950.    

Current Location:

5^th floor of Chrystal MacMillan Building on display.   

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General Notes

Sowei masks are given a name in Mende society, but we do not know the name of this specific mask.       

Sources:

Little, K. L. (1949). ‘The Role of the Secret Society in Cultural Specialization.’ American Anthropologist, 51, no. 2: 199–212.  

Otto, Kristin. (2020) ‘Creating the Sowei: Repairing and Interpreting Sowei Masks in Global Assemblages.’ Order No. 28027290, Indiana University.   

Phillips, R. B. (1979) ‘The Sande Society Masks of the Mende of Sierra Leone.’ PhD diss., School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.   

Recommended site for further research:

Sierra Leone Heritage  

Name of Cataloguer: Zahra Abdalla   

Accession Number: SA031

Key Words:  Toy, Papua New Guinea, Hooshang Philsooph   

Description:  

A spinning top toy made from coconut and wood. The interior of the coconut (or Opi nut) has been scraped out to create a smooth surface, which has been carved and painted with ornament design etchings. A spindle protrudes through the middle of this inner side. Placing the toy object in one’s hands and pulling back in opposite directions allows the toy to spin on this spindle. 

Function:  

These spinning tops have been used across Papua New Guinea, but are particularly significant with the Elema, Abelam and Torres Straits communities. Top spinning is a toy or pastime for both children and adults. Two opponents (mostly boys and men) will ‘battle’ with these spinning tops by spinning the tops at each other, with the winning top remaining spinning and standing. These toys were also frequently used as a ceremonial game, where the winner was thought to have the biggest harvest that year. The toys often have designs etched into the inside of the top that are specific certain tribes or communities.  

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Dimensions:  15cm x 14 cm x 7 xm

Materials:   Coconut, wood, likely paint or dye  

Production Methods and Techniques:   Unknown, but spinning tops generally require wood carving processes.  

Condition:  Good.   

Name of Creator:   Unknown  

Where the item was made:   Likely Papua New Guinea.  

Date Made:  Unknown  

Acquisition:  Unknown, but these objects were potentially acquired by Professor Hooshang Philsooph during his ethnographic research in Puang, West Sepik, Papua New Guinea and donated to the University of Edinburgh’s Social Anthropology Teaching Collection by him, where the Social Anthropology Department now has ownership. 

Acquisition Date:  Unknown, but potentially acquired between 1971-1973 during Professor Hooshang Philsooph’s fieldwork.  

Current Location:  Chrystal MacMillan Building in storage.   

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Sources:  

Read, C.H. (1888) Stone Spinning Tops from Torres Straits, New Guinea. The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 17: 84-90. Doi: 10.2307/2841587.  

Philsooph, H. (1980) A Study of a West Sepik People, New Guinea, with special reference to their system of beliefs, kinship and marriage, and principles of thought. PhD thesis. University of Edinburgh.  

Recommended sites for further research:  To view similar objects, check the British Museum collection online, museum number: Oc,+.3435, and the Pitt Rivers museum collection online, database record 1931.86.156.    

Name of Cataloguer:  Aisling Kelly  

Date:  06/03/2025  

Accession Number: SA028